American Involvement in Somalia

This is a continuation of my research into the American involvement in the Somali civil War between 1992 and 1994. This paper will attempt to fit the historical data into some of the various ideas put forth in the Kriesberg book, though, unfortunately, the war did not really develop in the same way that the book might describe due to the complete failure of the mission and the brief time of actual American combat. Nevertheless, Kriesberg will provide a useful theoretical starting point to understand this conflict and its ultimate lack of resolution. The civil war that the US was supposed to stop continues without resolution to this very day.1. Escalating the war took place in three rapid stages. All of these were American led operations, though under the cover of â€Å"UN Resolutions† which seemed to provide some kind of a moral stamp on the operation. The three stages were all complete failures from every conceivable point of view. Conventionally, they are called, in order UN OSOM I, UNITAF and finally, UNISOM II, which was finally terminated in 1994 (Lyons, 1995, 39). All of these acronyms concern either UN or US projects in Somalia. The first, in 1992, saw the deployment of only a handful of peacekeepers once most of the factions in the country agreed to some kind of mediation.But as soon as the grand total of 50 men landed, the factions refused any kind of negotiation and immediately resumed fighting. UNOSOM I was considered a bad joke at best. However, the US took over operations a brief time later under UNITAF, which was basically an American controlled operation. In early 1993, the US sought to intervene under the cover of both UN diplomacy and under the idea of â€Å"humanitarian intervention,† a concept where the state intervening does not have any real political capital to gain, but is intervening to save lives and avert famine.But the reality is that the US was interested in controlling Somalia for one reason: to keep it from falling int o the hands of the Islamic movement of General Mohammed Farah Aidid (Lyons, 1995, 39-42). Aidid very quickly succeeded in making himself the most powerful faction leader in Somalia, and in his turn, made himself the anti-American and anti-Israeli leader in the war, holding to a semi-communist kind of Islam that sided with Sudan and, to some extent, Syria in the middle east (Schultz, 2006, 92-94). Aidid also condemned American involvement in the Iraq war.Hence, very quickly, the Clinton administration dropped both te UN and the â€Å"humanitarian† cover and sought to capture Aidid at all costs. Aidid was a threat to both US and Israeli interests for several reasons, dealt with in detail in the last paper: first, Somalia is an oil-rich state, second, it helps control access to the Red Sea, and third, it controls access, to some extent, to the equally oil-rich state of Sudan, where western backed rebels in oil rich Darfur are fighting the Islamic state of Omar Bashir (Kreitzman, 2006).Hence, Somalia was considered a strategic country on all counts. The American force was fought to a draw by Aidid’s forces in the famed 1993 Battle of Mogadishu. It was not long after that that both UNITAF and UNOSOM II, engaged in at the same time, withdrew its forces from Somalia. 2. There was an US brokered attempt to create a unified faction against Aidid in Ethiopia (then a pro-US power in the region), but negotiations quickly broke down (Lyons, 1995, 40-41 also 45). But this is where the American failure can be more closely analyzed.First of all, the Americans approached negotiations as a purely zero-sum game (Kriesberg, 2006, 273). The point of negotiations in 1993 was not to end the war, but to escalate with, with a strongly western backed coalition against Aidid. Since there was no real understanding of the ideas of all factions, political or religious, the US also, secondly, stereotyped its opponents: the Muslims were evil, foul and, worse, anti-Israel, and t he others were secular and progressive (Kreisberg, 2006, 280).Hence, both due to the zero-sum question as well as stereotyping, the US could not successfully operate on Somali territory, even if the number of soldiers escalated higher. The zero-sum aspect of this is also connected to what Kriesberg calls â€Å"cognitive dissonance† in warfare–that is, an intervening party must convince themselves that the official reason that one is intervening is the real one (Kreisberg, 2006, 157). Of course, no serious person could possible pull that off, and hence, there was a schism in the mentality of the intervention from day one.Since the real purpose behind US intervention was to install a secular government friendly to American interests, and the â€Å"humanitarian† rhetoric went out the window at an early date once Aidid became powerful and popular, the official purpose and the real purpose of the intervention became an â€Å"open secret† early on. This could o nly hamper American efforts. As General Montgomery pointed out, the issuance of UN Security Council Resolution 814, with tacit U. S. support, clearly changed the mission. â€Å"For us there was no such thing as mission creep,† he pointed out, â€Å"because it was very clear at the outset what we were supposed to do.† While the resolution was unrealistic and overly ambitious, General Montgomery insisted the taskings in it were clear enough (Hoffman 2004). Nothing could be further from the truth. If anything, â€Å"mission creep† was the order of the day. Directives from Washington differed from directives from the UN. Washington wanted Aidid, while the UN wanted some kind of humanitarian action. But this is not atypical from upper brass in the military establishment, as much a political position as a military one.Ultimately, there was a superficial resolution of the problem by saying that the reason the humanitarian disaster occurred was that Aidid made sure the food aid did not get to â€Å"the people. † This assertion has no evidence to underscore it. But even more, the US got involved in an obscure part of the world for oil and Israeli interests. The US had no real comprehension of the religion and culture of either the Islamic or Christian Somalis. The US, as mentioned in the last paper, failed miserably in the propaganda war once Aidid made it clear that the US was an invading and imperial force working at the behest of wealth and power.This set of ideas helped bring Somalis to his side, and made the US look bad. But American ignorance of the real situation and the perception of US interests among the common population ultimately forced the withdrawal of all troops by 1994 with little having been done. 3. The consequences of this intervention were absolutely disastrous. Since 1992, roughly 1. 2 million Somalis have lost their lives. Starvation is the order of the day, and the war continues without abatement. Aidid himself was ki lled in a gun battle in 1996, yet his movement remains strong.But more abstractly, there are indirect consequences. First, the US realized that any serious commitment needed a large number of troops with strong air support. Second, the approbation of the UN, while having no military value, has a strong degree of moral value. Third, Americans are not interested in long term warfare, unless a major event can take place where Americans are killed. Hence, 9/11 gave both the US and the Israelis a green light to take care of their political problems with little fallout (at least in the short run). Fourth, there needs to be a constant threat to keep Americans interested.Since Somalis did not threaten Americans, it was very difficult to maintain American interest or support. But constructing an ubiquitous web of Islamic terror cells might keep Americans interested. In reality however, none of these lessons were truly learned, and the realist approach to intervention still maintains itself: the US will intervene whenever its financial interests are concerned, which includes protecting the hated state of Israel at all costs to her prestige or credibility. Even more, the UN ended up looking like a paper tiger, a tool of US interests and without a clear agenda of its own.It was a disaster in every significant way. 4. The sort of warfare one is looking at in Somalia is clearly â€Å"zero-sum. † The US intervened solely out of an interest in African oil and the control of access to the strategic Red Sea. The failed negotiations in Ethiopia produced no results because of American ignorance and the refusal of US negotiators to permit Aidid to have any say in the matter. Hence, it became officially clear (contra the words of General Montgomery above) that the real purpose of the mission was to keep Aidid away from power at all costs.But in rejecting the most popular and powerful faction in the country and trying to cobble together a coalition of small and non-ideologica l factions led to complete disaster, and American intelligence completely failed to figure out who was who, and who wanted what (Razack, 2004, 44). The US failed due to the â€Å"social psychological† atmosphere that they themselves created (Kriesberg, 2006, 147). Aidid saw through the American purpose from the outset, which permitted him to construct an Islamic nationalist base that proved very popular. That was a nut that the semi-committed Clinton administration could not understand or crack.Furthermore, organizational structure of Aidid’s forces also changed (Kriesberg, 2006,158). As he became more and more popular, it became clear that his organization became more powerful, regularized and disciplined. As mentioned in the last paper, Aidid began providing his own social services, paving roads and even contemplated minting his own currency, all of which the US was determined to destroy, apparently on â€Å"humanitarian grounds. † 5. In Conclusion, Kriesberg can help us understand the war in Somalia and the American failure in several ways. First, the US stereotyped its enemy and the Islamic world in general.Second, it approached the war as a zero-sum game, with everything on the secular warlords and nothing on Aidid. Instead of talking with him and respecting his popularity, the US attempted to destroy his very base of power and his functioning administration (Lyons disagrees with this, and claims the US did briefly negotiate with Aidid, pp 43, but it went nowhere). Third, the US entered this war without any real understanding of the mentality of third world people in an impoverished state. Like in Iraq, it was assumed that the US would be greeted as peacekeepers. Instead, they were greeted as occupiers (Razack, 2004, 10-11).Fourth, the US did not have a clear sense of mission. While official sources held that the mission was truly humanitarian, from the outset it was clear that the purpose was to keep Aidid and all like him from power and make certain a pro-US leader was installed in this strategic country. Aidid, a man of great military and political talent, took advantage of all these failures to eventually drive the US out of Somalia. Bibliography: Hoffman, Frank (2004). â€Å"One Decade Later: Debacle in Somalia. † The Proceedings of the Naval Institute. January. (www. military. org) Kriesberg, L.(2006). Constructive Conflicts. Rowman and Littlefield. Kretzman, Steve (2003). â€Å"Oil Security, War and the Geopolitics of United States Energy Planning. † Multinational Monitor, Jan/Feb. Lyons, Terrence (1995) Somalia: State Collapse, Multilateral Intervention and Strategies for Political Reconstruction. Brookings Institute Razack, Sherlene (2004). Dark Threats and White Knights: The Somalia Affair Peacekeeping and the New Imperialism. University of Toronto Press Shultz, Richard (2006) Insurgents, terrorists and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. Columbia University Press

Everyday Use by Alice Walker Essay

A loving mother The unconditional love of Mama towards Dee and Maggie is shown. For example, ‘I will wait for her (Dee) in the yard that Maggie and I made so clean†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Mama takes good care of the house in order to create a comfortable living environment for them. Also, mama saves money to send Dee to study in Augusta as to receive a better education although she is poor. Mama gives the best to her daughter. Tough and strong There is a long description portraying the masculine side of Mama. ‘In real life I am a big-boned woman with rough, man-working hands†¦I can kill and clean a hog as mercilessly as a man.’ shows Mama belongs to the labor class. Readers may guess that Mama is a single mother as her husband is mentioned once. Mama seems to bring teo daughters up by herself. Poor and uneducated The narrator directly divulges the education level of Mama: ‘I never had an education myself†¦sometimes Maggie reads to me.’ She can’t break through this poor life. Patient When mama asked what happen to ‘Dee’, Dee replied, ‘She’s dead’ which shows her inconsideration towards identity. Instead of blaming Dee, Mama accepts the big chances of Dee. Mama asks her about her new and complicated name: ‘How do you pronounce this name?’ I asked. ‘You don’t have to call me by it if you don’t want to.’ said Wangero ‘Why shouldn’t I?’ I asked. The one who understand the meaning of quilts /mature Mama explains the family tree and who is Dee’s named after in details. At las, she gives the quilts to Maggie because she knows Maggie also understand its importance and will treasure the quilts. -> However, the dream/thought of Dee and Mama is to be brought together on a TV program reveals the distant relationship between the two and also how Mama remains a practical woman with few illusions and dream of how things are. Voice (whether she can be trusted) of the narrator The voice of the narrator is trustful as she is honest to divulge everything to readers. Mama doesn’t feel ashamed about her education level and outlook. As a narrator, Mama reveals her background information directly: ‘I never had an education myself’; ‘In real life I am a big-boned woman with rough, man-working hands’. She also has no hesitation on talking about she has a daughter who walks like a lame animal.

Ip1 managing high performance Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ip1 managing high performance - Research Paper Example Therefore, supervisors have to interact with sub-ordinates to find out the best style of management to utilize for effectiveness. Some will need an authoritarian manager while others will perform adequately in a participative manner that guarantees the best result. Theory X can use in managing unskilled labor-force and large scale production. Theory Y is best suited for professional services as well as knowledge-based work, such as call center procedures (Winslow, 2009). Theory Y and democratic decision-making are at some degree comparable. The employees working under theory Y naturally merged their objectives to the organization’s objectives. Theory Y allows employees to participate in decision-making but leave management to implement decisions made. However, democratic decision-making is when an individual makes decisions without external influence. Employees’ performance and morale can improve if a manager understands the two theories. The manager can hence practice the excellent leadership style. As a result, he can advance the productivity of the organization (Drucker,

Molesworth Manor Communication Campaign Coursework

Molesworth Manor Communication Campaign - Coursework Example As a result, it is vital that Molesworth Manor devise a way to avoid this occurrence since the profitability may be ultimately affected. It is for this reason that empty nesters have been targeted as the next market for Molesworth Manor. This is a group of lonely people since they have no school-going children unlike the ones that Molesworth Manor has been targeting. The current situation is that this group is not among the people targeted by Molesworth Manor. Yet, these people need not wait for their children to come on holiday to book for rooms at Molesworth Manor. Therefore, it is highly recommendable that this group be targeted this year. For this sole reason was this reported created to ensure that Molesworth Manor remains profitable irrespective of the period. Molesworth Manor (MM) has been actively engaged in the hospitality industry for several decades now where its brand has been tremendously celebrated. The geographic location of Molesworth manor favours it in various ways including having some of the wealthiest counties around. The towns of Hampshire, Buckinghamshire and Surrey are some of the towns named as the wealthiest with every household having at least one car. Further, this hotel’s location prides itself for having a great number of empty nesters. Additionally, the infrastructure is not a problem in the area meaning clients can access the hotel without any inconveniences at all. In light of the above, the objectives Molesworth Manor wishes to achieve in this campaign include finding a solution to the months when there is low occupancy. Normally, Molesworth Manor is mostly booked during the school holidays when the families spend several days there. However, the months of February, March and October are adversely affected since not many families book the hotel during this time.

Revenue Function Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Revenue Function - Assignment Example It is almost impossible to obtain accurate and reliable financial figures for the intangible services being provided (Cleverly,Song , &Cleverly,2011). According to Brown (2012) in Encyclopedia for Business ,the external revenue generation of not-for profit organizations adds to the complexity. These organizations rely on funds from other external sources, which is a challenge itself since there is no incentive for the contributors. The role of the largest client of healthcare organizations, that is government, makes the whole process even more complex due to the complex payment system. For the successful running of HCO understanding of policies, rules and procedures is of utmost importance(Cleverly,Song , &Cleverly,2011). The integral part of economy of any country is composed of Non-profit organizations because of its valuable services. Unaffordable services are made available and approachable through these organizations. This increases the pressure on such organizations to fill the discrepancies which result in the complexity of the revenue functions. Just like profit organizations such not for profit organizations are also a business and the requirements for revenues has to be met for effective functioning of the organization. Cleverly, W. O., & Song, P. H. & Clevrly,J.O. (2011).Financial Envoirenment of Healthcare Organizations.Essentials Of Healthcare Finance(7th Ed.). Retrieved from

The history of jazz in America before the 1900s Research Paper

The history of jazz in America before the 1900s - Research Paper Example Consequently, jazz is in many ways a symbol for the American idea of democracy3. The cortex of jazz comprises of numerous layers, varying from hard and soft, in that it is complex in structure and hard to take apart. However, the history appears displaced and the styles contradictory because one experiences a puzzling series of shifts in place, person and style. Those who mostly dominated in the music include important but actually unrelated figures in New York, Negroes in New Orleans and white musicians in Chicago. Although there is a disastrous split in jazz launched by the swing era and increased during the days of bebop with the alleged progressive jazz, upon looking and listening closely there is appearance of both order and continuity4. Therefore, jazz is a new genre of music with distinct rhythmic and melodic character, one that regularly involves improvisation of a minor type in changing tune’s phrases and accents but of a major sort in creating music ex- temporaneousl y, instantly. Consequently, there is alteration of melody or underlying chords in the course of creating jazz. In addition, according to a standard scheme the rhythmic valuations of notes may be syncopated or not, lengthened or shortened, or there may be no steady pattern of rhythmic variations provided a steady beat remains understood or clear. The beat which serves as a solid rhythmic base for the improvisation of soloists or groups playing eight or twelve measures, or some multiple or dividend thereof is mainly four quarter-notes to the bar5. The History of Jazz in America Before 1900 In British North America, almost 240,000 about 20 percent of the... The American people value and respect the development of jazz as a form of music. This is because they consider it as a form of expressing their national and cultural identity. This form of music has its roots in the early slaves from America. The main reason of referring to jazz as improvisional music is that it draws its musical and rhythmic styles strongly upon the ragtime, blues, gospel and other African-American styles. Jazz originated from New Orleans amongst the black population as the bequest of slave trade that mainly found the city the first port of call . The development of jazz in America was rather a slow process but ultimately growing in to the current famous jazz music. It has its roots from the African slaves taken from their homes to America. These slaves had a rich diversity in African Folk songs that they highly appreciated. Unfortunately, when they arrived in America, they were under very strict laws and regulations. Their masters did not allow them to practice an y other culture other than that of slaves. They did not allow these Africans to explore their music diversity. As they suffered in the hands of their masters, these slaves turned to music as a form of relief. This music developed for a long time and eventually became the popular jazz music. During the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the American people considered jazz as an important form of music. This is because it became a way of expression and national identity

Stress and health in novice and experienced nursing students Essay

Stress and health in novice and experienced nursing students - Essay Example tate them all.) If there are not research questions and/or a hypothesis, indicate that is the case and provide your interpretation of what the research question and hypotheses are. The research questions that became used in the experiment included, What degrees of stress and types of stressful events perceived by students in their clinical practice, what the common biopsychosocial responses were during clinical practice periods, what the differences in reports of health and stress between experienced and novice groups of nursing students were. In accordance to the research paper, stress and coping tend to affect health in social, physical and psychological aspects. Since the medical team is highly dependent on the nurses, plus the nursing students need to learn, the research became aimed at knowing the outcomes of stress to their learning. The research used nursing students from the University for Higher School for Nursing positioned in Andalusia. The research became conducted for 3 years. The research involved all the 503 nursing students. The sample became representative of the whole nursing population. The size was appropriate as it involved all the nursing students. Such a sample was excellent though data collection from each of the students might have brought some issues. In data collection, two types of tools became used the Perceived Stress Scale and the Biopsychosocial Response Scale. The two became designed by Sheu. Reliability of the two tools became mentioned in the research, for instance, the Perceived Stress Scale got reasonable reliability indexes. Biopsychosocial Response Scale became reliable too in the process of data collection. In the research, the writer utilizes the use of tables. Tables offer a summary of the data collected in a simplified form. One can be able to understand the data displayed in the table since they are simplifies and direct to the point. In the table of the stress perceived by the use of Perceived Stress Scale, a